Types of Administrative Agencies

Types of Administrative Agencies

Administrative agencies are not all built in the same way. Some operate directly within the executive branch under presidential supervision. Others were historically designed to have greater independence from presidential control. Some are organized as departments, some as commissions, some as boards, and others as single-headed agencies. Some primarily regulate private conduct, while others administer benefits, enforce federal laws, conduct investigations, or resolve administrative disputes.

Understanding these different types matters because the structure of an agency can affect who controls it, how its officials are appointed and removed, what powers it exercises, and how constitutional accountability operates.

An administrative agency is, broadly, a government body authorized to implement legislative directives and perform administrative functions that Congress has assigned to it. Agencies may develop technical rules, enforce laws, investigate conduct, issue licenses, administer programs, and sometimes adjudicate disputes.

For a useful starting point, see Cornell Law School’s Legal Information Institute discussion of Administrative Agencies.

The important point is that there is no single classification system for administrative agencies. An agency may belong to several categories at once.

For example, an agency might be:

• a federal agency;
• an executive agency;
• an independent establishment;
• a regulatory agency;
• a multimember commission;
• a rulemaking agency;
• an enforcement agency; and
• an adjudicatory agency.

These classifications describe different characteristics of the same institution.

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1. Why Are Administrative Agencies Classified?

The word “agency” is deceptively simple.

The federal government contains departments, administrations, commissions, boards, corporations, bureaus, authorities, offices, and other governmental institutions. Their names do not always tell us exactly what legal category they occupy.

Classification matters because different structural arrangements can produce different relationships between:

• Congress;
• the President;
• agency officials;
• regulated businesses;
• individuals;
• courts; and
• the public.

Consider two hypothetical agencies.

Agency A is headed by a single administrator who serves under presidential supervision.

Agency B is governed by a multimember commission whose members serve fixed terms.

Both may issue regulations. Both may investigate violations. Both may enforce federal law.

Yet their institutional structures can raise very different questions about presidential control, appointment, removal, independence, and separation of powers.

Thus, when lawyers ask “What type of agency is this?”, they are often really asking:

Who created it, what powers does it possess, who controls it, and what legal constraints govern its structure?

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2. Federal Administrative Agencies

The broadest useful category is the federal administrative agency.

Federal agencies operate within the federal government and carry out responsibilities assigned by federal law.

Congress creates many federal agencies through statutes that establish the agency, define its responsibilities, and delegate particular powers to it. These statutes are often called the agency’s organic statute or enabling statute.

The agency must remain within the authority granted by that statute and within constitutional limits.

Federal administrative law therefore involves a continuing relationship:

Constitution → Congress → organic statute → agency → administrative action → judicial review

The agency does not stand outside this hierarchy.

Its authority is derivative.

Congress gives the agency legal responsibilities; the agency exercises those responsibilities within the boundaries established by law.

The federal government’s terminology can also be technical. For example, federal law distinguishes between “executive agencies” and the broader category of “federal agencies.” Under federal definitions, a federal agency can include executive agencies as well as certain establishments in the legislative or judicial branches.

For most administrative-law study, however, the principal focus is on agencies performing administrative functions within or associated with the executive branch.

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3. Executive Departments

One of the most important categories consists of executive departments.

These are the major departments of the federal executive branch.

Examples include:

• Department of Justice;
• Department of Defense;
• Department of State;
• Department of Labor;
• Department of Transportation;
• Department of Health and Human Services; and
• Department of the Treasury.

The heads of executive departments are generally Cabinet-level officers, such as the Attorney General or Secretary of Defense.

Executive departments are therefore closely connected to presidential administration.

The President appoints department heads subject to the constitutional appointment process, and the departments operate as major components of the executive branch.

But an important distinction must be made:

A department is not necessarily synonymous with an administrative agency.

A department is a large organizational structure that may contain numerous agencies, bureaus, administrations, offices, and other components.

For example, the Department of the Treasury contains multiple organizational components performing different governmental functions.

This means that “agency” can sometimes refer to an entire organizational institution and sometimes to a component within a larger department, depending on the statute being applied.

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4. Executive Agencies

An executive agency is an agency situated within the executive branch and generally subject to presidential administration.

The statutory terminology is important.

Under 5 U.S.C. § 105, an “Executive agency” includes an executive department, a government corporation, and an independent establishment. Related federal regulations similarly distinguish executive agencies from the broader category of federal agencies.

The practical concept is easier to understand than the terminology:

Executive agencies are governmental institutions through which executive power is carried out.

They may:

• administer federal programs;
• enforce federal statutes;
• issue regulations;
• conduct investigations;
• issue licenses;
• collect information;
• impose administrative penalties;
• conduct adjudications; and
• provide governmental services.

Executive agencies are particularly important to the constitutional principle that executive power is vested in the President.

The closer an agency’s functions are to the exercise of executive power, the more significant presidential supervision becomes.

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5. Independent Agencies

Historically, the term independent agency has referred to agencies designed to operate with some degree of insulation from direct presidential control.

Examples traditionally described as independent agencies or commissions have included:

• the Federal Trade Commission;
• the Securities and Exchange Commission;
• the Federal Communications Commission;
• the National Labor Relations Board; and
• the Consumer Product Safety Commission.

The traditional model often involved:

• multimember leadership;
• staggered terms;
• bipartisan membership requirements;
• statutory restrictions on presidential removal; and
• some degree of independence from direct presidential supervision.

The theory was that certain governmental functions might benefit from insulation from immediate political pressure.

But this traditional understanding has changed dramatically.

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6. The Constitutional Meaning of “Independent” Has Changed

The word independent can now be misleading.

For decades, Humphrey’s Executor v. United States was understood as supporting a constitutional distinction between ordinary executive officials and certain multimember independent commissions.

That distinction became increasingly controversial.

The Supreme Court later limited the traditional framework in cases including Free Enterprise Fund v. PCAOB and Seila Law LLC v. CFPB.

Then, in 2026, the Supreme Court went substantially further in Trump v. Slaughter.

The Court held that the Federal Trade Commission’s statutory protection against presidential removal was unconstitutional and overruled the relevant portion of Humphrey’s Executor. The Court reasoned that officers exercising executive power must remain subject to presidential control, while recognizing that an agency exercising no executive power may present a different constitutional situation.

This is a major development in administrative law.

The traditional statement:

“Independent agencies are independent of the President.”

is therefore no longer an adequate description of the constitutional landscape.

A better formulation is:

An agency may be described as “independent” as a matter of statutory structure or historical terminology, but that label does not necessarily mean that the agency is constitutionally free from presidential control.

That distinction is now essential.

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7. Multimember Commissions

Some agencies are structured as multimember commissions.

Instead of placing authority in one administrator, Congress may create a commission consisting of several members.

The traditional justification for this structure has included:

• collective decision-making;
• professional expertise;
• continuity;
• deliberation;
• bipartisan representation; and
• protection against concentrating regulatory power in one individual.

Historically, multimember commissions were closely associated with independent agencies.

The Federal Trade Commission is the classic example.

But structure and constitutional independence are not identical.

A multimember commission can still exercise executive power.

And after Trump v. Slaughter, the fact that an agency is a multimember commission does not by itself establish that its officers may constitutionally be insulated from presidential removal.

This distinction is crucial:

Multimember structure ≠ constitutional independence.

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8. Single-Director Agencies

Other agencies are headed by a single director or administrator.

This structure concentrates authority in one principal officer.

Examples historically have included agencies such as the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau.

Single-director agencies raise particularly important constitutional questions because concentrating substantial governmental power in one official can create a direct question about presidential accountability.

In Seila Law LLC v. Consumer Financial Protection Bureau, the Supreme Court held that the CFPB’s structure, including protection of its single director from at-will presidential removal, violated separation-of-powers principles.

The case illustrated an important constitutional principle:

The structure of an agency can itself become a constitutional question.

The question is not merely what the agency does.

It is also who controls the person who does it.

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9. Government Corporations

The federal government also uses government corporations.

A government corporation is an entity organized in corporate form to perform governmental functions.

Federal law defines government corporations in statutory terms, and federal regulations treat wholly owned government corporations as a category of executive agency.

Government corporations may combine governmental objectives with organizational features associated with private corporations.

This structure can be useful where the government is performing activities that involve:

• financial operations;
• commercial transactions;
• infrastructure;
• public services; or
• specialized operational responsibilities.

The corporate form, however, does not make the entity a private corporation.

Its powers ultimately depend upon federal law.

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10. Boards and Commissions

The federal government also uses boards and commissions.

These terms generally describe organizational structures rather than a single constitutional category.

A commission may be:

• regulatory;
• investigative;
• adjudicatory;
• advisory;
• enforcement-oriented; or
• multifunctional.

Similarly, a board may perform regulatory, administrative, professional, or oversight functions.

The name alone therefore tells us relatively little.

A lawyer should look instead at the agency’s organic statute.

The statute may reveal:

• who appoints the members;
• how long they serve;
• whether terms are staggered;
• whether removal is restricted;
• what powers the body possesses;
• whether it may issue regulations;
• whether it may conduct adjudications;
• whether it may impose penalties; and
• what judicial review is available.

The statutory structure matters more than the label.

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11. Regulatory Agencies

Another way of classifying agencies is according to what they do.

A regulatory agency regulates conduct within a particular area of public policy.

Regulation may involve:

• establishing standards;
• licensing;
• monitoring compliance;
• investigating violations;
• issuing administrative orders;
• imposing penalties; and
• promulgating regulations.

A regulation is generally a governmental rule designed to govern conduct within an agency’s jurisdiction.

Examples of regulatory subjects include:

• financial markets;
• communications;
• environmental protection;
• workplace safety;
• consumer protection;
• transportation;
• energy; and
• employment relations.

Regulatory agencies are among the most visible institutions in administrative law because their decisions can directly affect private businesses and individuals.

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12. Benefits and Program-Administration Agencies

Not every agency primarily regulates private conduct.

Some agencies primarily administer governmental programs.

Their responsibilities may include:

• distributing benefits;
• administering federal programs;
• processing applications;
• determining eligibility;
• managing public resources;
• providing services; and
• implementing statutory programs.

These agencies may still issue rules, conduct investigations, and make adjudicatory decisions.

But their relationship with the public may be different from that of a traditional regulatory agency.

A regulatory agency may tell a company:

“You may not engage in this conduct unless you satisfy these requirements.”

A program-administration agency may instead tell an individual:

“You qualify for this statutory benefit because you satisfy these requirements.”

Both involve administrative law, but the legal relationship is different.

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13. Enforcement Agencies

Some agencies are heavily involved in enforcement.

An enforcement-oriented agency may:

1. investigate possible violations;
2. gather evidence;
3. issue subpoenas or inspection demands where authorized;
4. bring administrative proceedings;
5. negotiate settlements;
6. issue orders; and
7. impose administrative penalties where authorized by law.

Enforcement agencies therefore occupy an important position between legislation and judicial enforcement.

They may identify violations and initiate proceedings without being ordinary Article III courts.

That creates recurring questions about:

• due process;
• statutory authority;
• administrative adjudication;
• evidentiary standards;
• separation of powers;
• judicial review; and
• the constitutional role of Article III courts.

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14. Adjudicatory Agencies

Some agencies have authority to adjudicate administrative disputes.

Administrative adjudication can involve matters such as:

• professional licensing;
• benefits;
• regulatory violations;
• employment disputes;
• immigration matters;
• agency enforcement proceedings; and
• other disputes arising under federal regulatory programs.

Administrative adjudication is not identical to litigation in an Article III federal court.

Administrative law judges and other hearing officials may conduct proceedings within the agency’s statutory framework.

The APA itself establishes important rules governing federal administrative adjudication and distinguishes formal and informal administrative processes.

The distinction is important because an agency can sometimes possess several functions simultaneously.

For example, an agency might:

make a rule → investigate a violation → conduct an administrative hearing → issue an order → face judicial review.

That combination of functions is one of the defining features of modern administrative government.

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15. Licensing and Permitting Agencies

Some agencies exercise substantial authority through licenses, permits, certifications, and approvals.

Instead of simply prohibiting conduct, government may require a person or business to obtain governmental permission before engaging in certain activities.

Examples can include:

• professional licenses;
• environmental permits;
• transportation licenses;
• communications licenses;
• immigration-related permissions;
• business certifications; and
• permits involving regulated industries.

Licensing authority can give an agency significant practical power.

The agency may determine whether an applicant satisfies statutory and regulatory requirements.

That makes administrative discretion especially important.

An agency must exercise licensing authority according to law rather than treating statutory discretion as unlimited personal judgment.

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16. Federal Agencies vs. State Agencies

Administrative agencies also exist at the state level.

Every state has its own administrative institutions.

These may include:

• state environmental agencies;
• professional licensing boards;
• labor agencies;
• public utility commissions;
• health departments;
• transportation agencies;
• tax authorities; and
• state education agencies.

Federal administrative law and state administrative law are related but not identical.

Federal agencies operate under federal statutes, the U.S. Constitution, federal administrative law, and the federal APA where applicable.

State agencies operate under:

• state constitutions;
• state statutes;
• state administrative procedure acts;
• state regulations; and
• state judicial decisions.

Thus, the term “administrative agency” is broader than federal administrative agencies alone.

Cornell’s overview of administrative law expressly recognizes both federal and state administrative agencies and notes that state agencies are governed by comparable state administrative-law frameworks.

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17. Agencies Classified by Function

One of the most useful ways to understand agencies is to classify them by function rather than organizational label.

An agency may be primarily:

Type	Primary Function
Regulatory agency	Regulates private conduct
Enforcement agency	Investigates and enforces legal requirements
Adjudicatory agency	Resolves administrative disputes
Licensing agency	Grants or denies licenses and permits
Benefits agency	Administers government benefits
Program agency	Implements statutory programs
Investigative agency	Conducts investigations and gathers information
Rulemaking agency	Develops legally binding administrative rules
Advisory agency	Provides expertise and recommendations
Oversight agency	Monitors governmental or institutional compliance

These categories are functional, not necessarily mutually exclusive.

A single agency may occupy several categories simultaneously.

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18. Agencies Classified by Leadership Structure

A second classification concerns who governs the agency.

An agency may be:

Single-headed

Authority is concentrated in one principal officer.

Multimember

Authority is exercised by a board or commission.

Departmental

The agency operates as part of a larger executive department.

Component agency

The agency operates within a larger department or governmental institution.

Corporate

The government has created the entity using a corporate structure.

The structure can influence:

• appointment;
• removal;
• supervision;
• decision-making;
• accountability;
• expertise; and
• institutional independence.

But again, the label does not determine the constitutional result.

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19. Agencies Classified by Relationship to Presidential Control

Another important classification concerns the agency’s relationship with the President.

Historically, administrative law commonly distinguished between:

Presidential or executive agencies

These are closely integrated into presidential administration.

Independent agencies

These were historically designed with greater insulation from presidential control.

But after the Supreme Court’s 2026 decision in Trump v. Slaughter, the traditional distinction must be treated cautiously.

The Court held that the Constitution does not permit Congress to insulate officers exercising executive power from presidential removal merely by placing them in an “independent” agency. The Court substantially rejected the old constitutional foundation associated with Humphrey’s Executor.

Consequently, modern administrative-law analysis should distinguish between:

statutory independence

and

constitutional independence.

They are not necessarily the same thing.

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20. Why Agency Structure Matters After Trump v. Slaughter

The significance of Trump v. Slaughter extends beyond the Federal Trade Commission.

The decision forces lawyers to reconsider a fundamental assumption about administrative agencies:

Can Congress create an agency exercising executive power and then prevent the President from controlling the officials who exercise that power?

Under the Court’s 2026 approach, the answer is generally no.

The Court emphasized that executive power belongs to the President and that officers exercising executive power must remain subject to presidential control.

This does not mean that every agency suddenly becomes identical.

Congress still determines:

• the agency’s statutory mission;
• its jurisdiction;
• its procedures;
• its powers;
• its organizational structure;
• the qualifications of its officials;
• its funding framework; and
• many other aspects of administration.

But Congress cannot necessarily use the label “independent agency” to remove executive power from the constitutional structure of Article II.

This is one of the most important developments in modern administrative law.

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21. The Same Agency Can Have Multiple Classifications

A common mistake is to assume that agencies fit into neat boxes.

They do not.

Consider a hypothetical federal commission.

It could simultaneously be:

• a federal agency;
• an executive-branch agency;
• a regulatory agency;
• a multimember commission;
• a rulemaking body;
• an enforcement agency; and
• an adjudicatory body.

Each description answers a different question.

“Federal agency” tells us about governmental level.

“Executive agency” tells us about governmental branch or organizational classification.

“Commission” tells us about institutional structure.

“Regulatory agency” tells us what the agency does.

“Adjudicatory agency” tells us about one of its functions.

“Independent agency” historically described its relationship to presidential control, although the constitutional meaning of that concept has now been substantially altered.

The classifications therefore overlap.

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22. Why Names Can Be Misleading

A sophisticated administrative-law analysis should never stop at an agency’s name.

Consider the following labels:

• Department;
• Commission;
• Board;
• Bureau;
• Administration;
• Authority;
• Office;
• Corporation.

These names may provide clues, but they do not necessarily determine the agency’s legal status.

The governing questions are:

1. Who created the institution?
2. What statute created it?
3. What powers did Congress grant it?
4. Where is it organizationally located?
5. Who appoints its officers?
6. Who may remove those officers?
7. What functions does it perform?
8. What procedural rules govern it?
9. What judicial review is available?

The answers provide the agency’s actual legal architecture.

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23. A Practical Framework for Identifying an Agency

When encountering an unfamiliar administrative agency, use this sequence.

Step 1: Identify the legal source

Find the agency’s organic statute.

Step 2: Identify its institutional location

Ask whether it is:

• part of an executive department;
• an independent establishment;
• a government corporation;
• a component of another agency; or
• another federal governmental institution.

Step 3: Identify its leadership structure

Determine whether it is:

• single-headed;
• multimember;
• board-based; or
• commission-based.

Step 4: Identify its functions

Determine whether it:

• makes rules;
• enforces laws;
• investigates;
• adjudicates;
• licenses;
• administers benefits; or
• performs other governmental functions.

Step 5: Identify presidential control

Examine appointment and removal provisions and current constitutional doctrine.

Step 6: Identify procedural obligations

Determine whether the APA or another statute governs the agency’s action.

The APA is particularly important because it establishes federal procedures governing rulemaking and adjudication.

Step 7: Identify judicial review

Finally, determine how courts may review the agency’s actions.

This framework is much more reliable than attempting to classify an agency solely by its name.

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24. Types of Administrative Agencies: A Conceptual Map

The various classifications can be organized into four major dimensions:

1. Governmental level

Federal → State → Local

2. Institutional structure

Department → Bureau → Administration → Board → Commission → Corporation

3. Relationship to executive authority

Executive administration → Historically independent structures → Modern presidential-accountability framework

4. Functional role

Rulemaking → Enforcement → Adjudication → Licensing → Benefits → Investigation → Oversight

These dimensions overlap.

An agency’s complete identity is therefore better understood as a multidimensional legal structure rather than a single category.

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25. Administrative Agencies and the Rule of Law

Agency classification is not merely organizational housekeeping.

It is connected directly to the rule of law.

Administrative agencies exercise governmental power over individuals and organizations.

That power must therefore have:

• a legal source;
• defined boundaries;
• procedural safeguards;
• institutional accountability;
• reasoned decision-making; and
• judicial review where authorized.

The type of agency can influence how these safeguards operate.

For example, an agency exercising regulatory power may need extensive rulemaking procedures.

An enforcement agency may implicate due process and administrative adjudication.

A licensing agency may have to provide procedural protections to applicants.

A benefits agency may have to follow statutory eligibility standards and procedures.

The institutional form matters because government power must always be connected to legal authority.

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26. Types of Agencies and Separation of Powers

The classification of agencies also connects directly to constitutional structure.

Administrative agencies operate at the intersection of:

• legislative power;
• executive power; and
• adjudicatory functions.

Congress creates agencies and delegates statutory authority.

The executive branch administers and enforces federal law.

Agencies may sometimes conduct adjudicatory proceedings.

Courts review agency action.

This creates an institutional system in which governmental functions overlap without necessarily becoming constitutionally identical.

The central constitutional question is therefore not simply:

“What branch does the agency belong to?”

It is also:

“What governmental power is the agency exercising, and what constitutional structure governs that power?”

That question has become especially important after recent Supreme Court decisions concerning delegation, presidential supervision, and agency independence.

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27. Administrative Agencies After Loper Bright

Agency classification also matters in understanding the modern relationship between agencies and courts.

In Loper Bright Enterprises v. Raimondo, the Supreme Court rejected Chevron’s mandatory framework of judicial deference to agency interpretations of ambiguous statutes.

Courts must independently interpret statutes while recognizing valid congressional delegations and ensuring that agencies act within their lawful authority.

This means that an agency’s expertise does not transform its interpretation of a statute into binding law merely because the agency administers that statute.

The agency remains an administrative institution exercising delegated authority.

Its classification may help explain its expertise and institutional role, but classification does not give it independent authority to determine the meaning of federal statutes.

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28. Frequently Asked Questions

What are the main types of administrative agencies?

Administrative agencies can be classified in several ways. Common categories include executive agencies, independent agencies, departments, commissions, boards, government corporations, regulatory agencies, enforcement agencies, adjudicatory agencies, licensing agencies, and program-administration agencies.

What is an executive agency?

An executive agency is an agency operating within the executive branch. Federal statutory terminology includes executive departments, government corporations, and independent establishments within the definition of “Executive agency.”

What is an independent agency?

Historically, an independent agency was an agency designed to operate with greater insulation from direct presidential control, often through features such as multimember leadership and removal protections. However, the constitutional significance of that independence has changed substantially after Trump v. Slaughter in 2026.

Are independent agencies really independent?

Not necessarily in the constitutional sense. In Trump v. Slaughter, the Supreme Court held that Congress generally cannot insulate officers exercising executive power from presidential removal simply by placing them in an independent agency.

What is a regulatory agency?

A regulatory agency is an agency whose principal functions include regulating conduct within a particular area of governmental responsibility.

What is the difference between an agency and a department?

A department is generally a major organizational unit of the executive branch. It may contain numerous agencies, bureaus, administrations, and other components. The terms are therefore not always interchangeable.

What is a commission?

A commission is generally a governmental body whose authority is exercised by multiple commissioners. The name describes organizational structure, not necessarily a particular constitutional status.

What is a government corporation?

A government corporation is a governmental entity organized in corporate form to perform public functions. Federal law treats certain government corporations as executive agencies.

Can an agency make law?

Agencies do not possess general legislative power. Congress may delegate authority to agencies to issue legally binding regulations within statutory and constitutional limits. Agencies therefore exercise delegated rulemaking authority rather than possessing an unlimited legislative power of their own.

Can an agency enforce the law?

Yes. Many administrative agencies have enforcement responsibilities in addition to rulemaking and other functions.

Can an agency act like a court?

Some agencies conduct administrative adjudications. But an administrative adjudication is not identical to an Article III judicial proceeding, and constitutional questions may arise depending on the nature of the dispute, the rights involved, and the statutory structure.

Why does agency classification matter?

Classification can help determine the agency’s organizational structure, relationship to presidential authority, appointment and removal rules, functions, procedures, and constitutional constraints.

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Key Takeaways

• Administrative agencies come in many forms.
• An agency can be classified by its governmental level, organizational structure, relationship to the President, or function.
• Executive departments are major organizational units of the federal executive branch.
• Executive agencies operate within the executive branch and carry out governmental responsibilities.
• Independent agencies historically received greater insulation from presidential control, but the constitutional status of that independence has changed significantly.
• Multimember commissions and single-director agencies present different institutional structures and potentially different constitutional questions.
• Government corporations use a corporate organizational form to perform governmental functions.
• Agencies may also be classified functionally as regulatory, enforcement, adjudicatory, licensing, investigative, benefits, or program-administration agencies.
• A single agency can belong to several categories simultaneously.
• The name of an agency is not enough to determine its legal status.
• The agency’s organic statute is usually the starting point for determining its authority and structure.
• The Administrative Procedure Act establishes important federal procedural rules for agency rulemaking and adjudication.
• After Loper Bright, agency expertise does not give an agency controlling authority to interpret ambiguous statutes.
• After Trump v. Slaughter in 2026, the traditional constitutional concept of an “independent agency” has been substantially transformed.
• Ultimately, the most important question is not what an agency is called, but what governmental power it exercises, where that power comes from, and what legal limits govern it.

Conclusion

Administrative agencies are among the most diverse institutions in American government.

Some regulate industries. Some administer benefits. Some investigate violations. Some issue licenses. Some make regulations. Some conduct administrative hearings. Some perform several of these functions simultaneously.

They also differ in institutional design. Some operate as components of executive departments. Others are organized as independent establishments, commissions, boards, or government corporations. Some are headed by one official, while others use multimember bodies.

Yet the differences should not obscure the fundamental principle connecting them all:

An administrative agency is a creature of law.

Its authority must come from a lawful source. Its actions must remain within the boundaries established by the Constitution and governing statutes. Its procedures must satisfy applicable legal requirements. And its exercise of governmental power remains subject to the constitutional structure of the United States.

That is why understanding the types of administrative agencies is more than learning a list of governmental institutions. It is learning how American administrative power is organized.

And once the structure is understood, the next question becomes unavoidable:

What powers does each type of agency actually possess?